Development and Validation of an Adaptive Game-Based Underhand Passing Training Model Integrated with Video Feedback for Youth Volleyball Athletes Aged 13–15 Years

Abstract

Study purpose. This study aimed to: 1) develop an effective underhand passing training model for volleyball athletes aged 13-15 years, 2) test the feasibility of the model, and 3) measure its effectiveness in improving underhand passing skills.

Material and methods. This study used the Research and Development (R&D) method from Borg & Gall, involving 30 male athletes (13-15 years) from five clubs in Ponorogo. The development stages included needs analysis, product design, expert validation, small-scale trials (n=10), and large-scale trials (n=30). Data were collected through observation, questionnaires, and passing skill tests. The small-scale trial (n=10) showed an increase in the mean passing score from 66.8 to 75.9, indicating preliminary effectiveness of the developed model. Effectiveness was analyzed using paired-sample t-test and N-Gain.

Results. The final model integrated basic training with small-team play (2v2, 3v3) and passing-to-setup transitions. Expert validation obtained a score of 85% (feasible). The large-scale trial showed a significant improvement in passing skills (mean pre-test=67.4, post-test=79.2, p<0.001). The N-Gain score was 0.36 (moderate category).

Conclusion. The developed underhand passing model is feasible and effective in improving the underhand passing skills of volleyball athletes aged 13-15 years.